The Machiavellian Challenge to Business Ethics

George Bragues

doi:10.70150/2654b605

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Research ArticleEthics · social science · institutions

The Machiavellian Challenge to Business Ethics

George Bragues

Ethical Review of Social SciencesVolume 1, issue 1Pages 1–1209 January 2025https://doi.org/10.70150/2654b605

Research summary

Abstract

No political philosopher is better known in the business world than Niccolo Machiavelli. His fame resting on The Prince, the Renaissance Italian writer has often been featured in the popular business press, mostly to show the relevance of his realpolitik world-view to the sorts of issues that a contemporary manager is apt to face. However, the popular view of Machiavelli as a hard-headed thinker has been challenged by scholars pointing to his advocacy of republics in the Discourses on Livy, his other great work. Interpreted along these lines, Machiavelli can be invoked to support participatory structures in business along with the cultivation of publicly spirited virtues. We argue that the common perceptions of Machiavelli are actually on a better track. His analysis of republics uncovers weaknesses germane to business that render The Prince more suitable to commercial life. As such, Machiavelli’s overriding point is that in a competitive arena, such as that of modern-day business, individuals holding leadership positions, or aspiring to them, must be prepared to go beyond conventional morality and live by a different and, indeed, icy set of rules. Being good in business, Machiavelli warns, will only lead to personal ruin. Machiavelli goes further than this, calling for a trans-valuation of values, wherein the praiseworthy quality of leaders are redefined so as to take into account the competitive realities of business. In this new ethic, virtue is connected to acquisitiveness, moral flexibility, image management, and reaches its culmination in the entrepreneurial task of founding a great company.

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Keywords and JEL classification

MachiavelliLeadershipVirtueViceImage ManagementEntrepreneurshipJEL A12JEL A13JEL B10JEL B31JEL M00JEL M10JEL M12JEL M13JEL M14

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Anonymous. 2003, “Family Businesses Dominate: International Family Enterprise Research Academy”, Family Business Review, 16 (4), 235-241.
Applegate, J: 1994, “Keep Your Firm in the Family”, Money, 23 (1), 88-91.
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Berlin, I: 1972, “The Originality of Machiavelli”, in M.P. Gilmore (Ed.), Studies on Machiavelli (GC Sansoni, Florence).
Bing, S: 2000, What Would Machiavelli Do: The Ends Justify the Meanness (Harper Business, New York).
Buono, A.F., Bowditch, D.L., & Lewis, J.W: 1985, “When cultures collide: The Anatomy of a Merger”, Human Relations, 38 (5), 477-500.
Christie, R. & Geis, F.L: 1970, Studies in Machiavellianism (Academic Press, New York).
Cicero: 1991, On Duties, M.T. Griffin and E.M. Atkins (Eds.) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).
Coase, R: 1937, “The Nature of the Firm”, Economica, 4 (16), 386-405.
Colish, M.L: 1978, “Cicero’s De Officiis and Machiavelli’s Prince”, Sixteenth Century Journal, 9 (4), 80-93.
Conway Center for Family Business: 2024, “Family Business Facts”, Retrievable from, https://www.familybusinesscenter.com/resources/family-business-facts/ (accessed November 18, 2024).
Cosans, C., & Reina, C.S.: 2018, “he Leadership Ethics of Machiavelli’s The Prince”, Business Ethics Quarterly, 28, 275-300.
Di Norcia, V: 1988, “Mergers, Takeovers, and a Property Ethic”, Journal of Business Ethics, 7 (1-2), 109-116.
EY Global: 2023, “How the Largest Family Enterprises Are Outstripping Global Economic Growth”, Retrievable from, https://www.ey.com/en_gl/insights/family-enterprise/family-business-index (accessed November 18, 2024).
Fehr, B., Samson, D., Paulhus, D: 1992, “The Construct of Machiavellianism: Twenty years later”, in C.D. Spielberger & J.N. Butcher, (Eds.), Advances in Personality Assessment, Vol. 9. (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ).
Finch, N: 2005, “Identifying and Addressing the causes of conflict in family business”, MGSM Working Paper, Retrievable from, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=717262, (accessed January 22, 2009).
Gable, M. & Topol. M.T: 1991, “Machiavellian managers : Do They Perform Better?” Journal of Business and Psychology, 5 (3), 355-365.
Galie, P.J. & Bopst, C : 2006, « Machiavelli & Modern Business : Realist Thought in Contemporary Corporate Manuals”, Journal of Business Ethics, 65 (3), 235-250.
Goksoy, A.A: 2019, “Cultural Integration in Mergers and Acquisitions” in A.C. Moreira & P. Silva, (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Corporate Restructuring and Globalization (IGI Global, Hershey, PA), 101-124.
Griffin, G.R: 1991, Machiavelli on Management : Playing and Winning the Corporate Power Game. (Praeger, New York).
Harris, P, Lock, A & Rees, P. (Eds): 2000, Machiavelli, Marketing, and Management, (Routledge, London).
Ledeen, M: 1999, Machiavelli on Leadership : Why Machiavelli’s Rules are as Timely and Important Today as Five Centuries Ago, (Truman Talley Books, New York).
Machiavelli, N: 1970, The Discourses, L.J. Walker (trans.) (New York : Penguin).
_______: 1985, The Prince, H.C. Mansfield (trans.) (University of Chicago Press, Chicago).
Maity, M., Roy, N., Majumder, D., & Chakravarty, P: 2023, “Revisiting the Received Image of Machiavelli in Business Ethics Through a Close Reading of The Prince and Discourses”, Journal of Business Ethics, 191, 231-252.
Mansfield, H: 1996, Machiavelli’s Virtue, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago).
McAlpine, A: 1998, The New Machiavelli : The Art of Politics in Business, (John Wiley, New York).
Miller, D., Steier, L., & Le Breton-Miller, I : 2003, “Lost in Time: Intergenerational succession, change, and failure in family business”, Journal of Business Venturing, 18 (4), 513-531.
Morgenson G., & Rosner, J: 2023, These Are the Plunderers: How Private Equity Runs – and Wrecks – America, (Simon and Schuster, New York).
Olschiki, L: 1945, Machiavelli the Scientist, (University of California Press, Berkeley).
Perry, M: 2020. “Only 51 US Companies Have Been on the Fortune 500 Since 1955, Thanks to the Creative Destruction That Fuels Economic Prosperity”, American Enterprise Institute. Retrievable from, https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/only-51-us-companies-have-been-on-the-fortune-500-since-1955-thanks-to-the-creative-destruction-that-fuels-economic-prosperity/ (accessed November 18/2024).
Phillips, M: 2018, “GE Dropped From the Dow After More Than a Century”, New York Times, June 19, 2008. Retrievable from, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/19/business/dealbook/general-electric-dow-jones.html (accessed November 18, 2024).
Pocock, J.G.A: 1975, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton University Press, Princeton).
Plato: 1968, The Republic of Plato, A. Bloom (trans.) (Basic Books, New York).
Ramsey, M: 2000, “Are Machiavellian tactics still appropriate or defensible in politics?” in P. Harris, A. Lock, & P. Rees (eds.), Machiavelli, Marketing, and Management, (Routledge, London).
Ricks, J. & Fraedrich, J: 1999, “The Paradox of Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism May Make for Productive Sales but Poor Management Reviews”, Journal of Business Ethics, 20 (3), 197-205.
Skinner, N.F., Giokas, J. & Hornstein, H: 1976, “Personality Correlates of Machiavellianism: 1: Consensual Validation”, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 4 (2), 273-276.
Skinner, N.F: 1982, “Personality Correlates of Machiavellianism III: A Simulation Procedure for identifying high Machs”, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 10 (2), 197-199.
Skinner, Q: 2000, Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford University Press, Oxford).
Smith Family Business Initiative: 2024: “Family Business Facts”, Cornell SG Johnson College of Business, Retrievable from, https://business.cornell.edu/centers/smith/resources/family-business-facts/ (accessed November 18, 2024).
Weber, R. & Comerer, C.F: 2003, “Cultural Conflict and Merger Failure: An Experimental Approach”, Management Science, 49 (4), 400-415.
Wooldridge, A: 2009 (Mar. 14), “Global Heroes: A Special Report on Entrepreneurship”, The Economist, 390 (8622), 1-20.

Author information

George Bragues Corresponding author

University of Guelph-Humber

george.bragues@guelphhumber.ca

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[reference-1] Anonymous. 2003, “Family Businesses Dominate: International Family Enterprise Research Academy”, Family Business Review, 16 (4), 235-241.

[reference-2] Applegate, J: 1994, “Keep Your Firm in the Family”, Money, 23 (1), 88-91.

[reference-3] Aristotle: 1984, The Complete Works of Aristotle, J. Barnes (ed.) (Princeton University Press, Princeton).

[reference-4] Beckhard, R & Dyer, W.G: 1983, “Managing continuity in the family owned business”, Organizational Dynamics, 5 (1), 5-12.

[reference-5] Berlin, I: 1972, “The Originality of Machiavelli”, in M.P. Gilmore (Ed.), Studies on Machiavelli (GC Sansoni, Florence).

[reference-6] Bing, S: 2000, What Would Machiavelli Do: The Ends Justify the Meanness (Harper Business, New York).

[reference-7] Buono, A.F., Bowditch, D.L., & Lewis, J.W: 1985, “When cultures collide: The Anatomy of a Merger”, Human Relations, 38 (5), 477-500.

[reference-8] Christie, R. & Geis, F.L: 1970, Studies in Machiavellianism (Academic Press, New York).

[reference-9] Cicero: 1991, On Duties, M.T. Griffin and E.M. Atkins (Eds.) (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).

[reference-10] Coase, R: 1937, “The Nature of the Firm”, Economica, 4 (16), 386-405.

[reference-11] Colish, M.L: 1978, “Cicero’s De Officiis and Machiavelli’s Prince”, Sixteenth Century Journal, 9 (4), 80-93.

[reference-12] Conway Center for Family Business: 2024, “Family Business Facts”, Retrievable from, https://www.familybusinesscenter.com/resources/family-business-facts/ (accessed November 18, 2024).

[reference-13] Cosans, C., & Reina, C.S.: 2018, “he Leadership Ethics of Machiavelli’s The Prince”, Business Ethics Quarterly, 28, 275-300.

[reference-14] Di Norcia, V: 1988, “Mergers, Takeovers, and a Property Ethic”, Journal of Business Ethics, 7 (1-2), 109-116.

[reference-15] EY Global: 2023, “How the Largest Family Enterprises Are Outstripping Global Economic Growth”, Retrievable from, https://www.ey.com/en_gl/insights/family-enterprise/family-business-index (accessed November 18, 2024).

[reference-16] Fehr, B., Samson, D., Paulhus, D: 1992, “The Construct of Machiavellianism: Twenty years later”, in C.D. Spielberger & J.N. Butcher, (Eds.), Advances in Personality Assessment, Vol. 9. (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ).

[reference-17] Finch, N: 2005, “Identifying and Addressing the causes of conflict in family business”, MGSM Working Paper, Retrievable from, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=717262, (accessed January 22, 2009).

[reference-18] Gable, M. & Topol. M.T: 1991, “Machiavellian managers : Do They Perform Better?” Journal of Business and Psychology, 5 (3), 355-365.

[reference-19] Galie, P.J. & Bopst, C : 2006, « Machiavelli & Modern Business : Realist Thought in Contemporary Corporate Manuals”, Journal of Business Ethics, 65 (3), 235-250.

[reference-20] Goksoy, A.A: 2019, “Cultural Integration in Mergers and Acquisitions” in A.C. Moreira & P. Silva, (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Corporate Restructuring and Globalization (IGI Global, Hershey, PA), 101-124.

[reference-21] Griffin, G.R: 1991, Machiavelli on Management : Playing and Winning the Corporate Power Game. (Praeger, New York).

[reference-22] Harris, P, Lock, A & Rees, P. (Eds): 2000, Machiavelli, Marketing, and Management, (Routledge, London).

[reference-23] Ledeen, M: 1999, Machiavelli on Leadership : Why Machiavelli’s Rules are as Timely and Important Today as Five Centuries Ago, (Truman Talley Books, New York).

[reference-24] Machiavelli, N: 1970, The Discourses, L.J. Walker (trans.) (New York : Penguin).

[reference-25] _______: 1985, The Prince, H.C. Mansfield (trans.) (University of Chicago Press, Chicago).

[reference-26] Maity, M., Roy, N., Majumder, D., & Chakravarty, P: 2023, “Revisiting the Received Image of Machiavelli in Business Ethics Through a Close Reading of The Prince and Discourses”, Journal of Business Ethics, 191, 231-252.

[reference-27] Mansfield, H: 1996, Machiavelli’s Virtue, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago).

[reference-28] McAlpine, A: 1998, The New Machiavelli : The Art of Politics in Business, (John Wiley, New York).

[reference-29] Miller, D., Steier, L., & Le Breton-Miller, I : 2003, “Lost in Time: Intergenerational succession, change, and failure in family business”, Journal of Business Venturing, 18 (4), 513-531.

[reference-30] Morgenson G., & Rosner, J: 2023, These Are the Plunderers: How Private Equity Runs – and Wrecks – America, (Simon and Schuster, New York).

[reference-31] Olschiki, L: 1945, Machiavelli the Scientist, (University of California Press, Berkeley).

[reference-32] Perry, M: 2020. “Only 51 US Companies Have Been on the Fortune 500 Since 1955, Thanks to the Creative Destruction That Fuels Economic Prosperity”, American Enterprise Institute. Retrievable from, https://www.aei.org/carpe-diem/only-51-us-companies-have-been-on-the-fortune-500-since-1955-thanks-to-the-creative-destruction-that-fuels-economic-prosperity/ (accessed November 18/2024).

[reference-33] Phillips, M: 2018, “GE Dropped From the Dow After More Than a Century”, New York Times, June 19, 2008. Retrievable from, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/19/business/dealbook/general-electric-dow-jones.html (accessed November 18, 2024).

[reference-34] Pocock, J.G.A: 1975, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton University Press, Princeton).

[reference-35] Plato: 1968, The Republic of Plato, A. Bloom (trans.) (Basic Books, New York).

[reference-36] Ramsey, M: 2000, “Are Machiavellian tactics still appropriate or defensible in politics?” in P. Harris, A. Lock, & P. Rees (eds.), Machiavelli, Marketing, and Management, (Routledge, London).

[reference-37] Ricks, J. & Fraedrich, J: 1999, “The Paradox of Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism May Make for Productive Sales but Poor Management Reviews”, Journal of Business Ethics, 20 (3), 197-205.

[reference-38] Skinner, N.F., Giokas, J. & Hornstein, H: 1976, “Personality Correlates of Machiavellianism: 1: Consensual Validation”, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 4 (2), 273-276.

[reference-39] Skinner, N.F: 1982, “Personality Correlates of Machiavellianism III: A Simulation Procedure for identifying high Machs”, Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 10 (2), 197-199.

[reference-40] Skinner, Q: 2000, Machiavelli: A Very Short Introduction. (Oxford University Press, Oxford).

[reference-41] Smith Family Business Initiative: 2024: “Family Business Facts”, Cornell SG Johnson College of Business, Retrievable from, https://business.cornell.edu/centers/smith/resources/family-business-facts/ (accessed November 18, 2024).

[reference-42] Weber, R. & Comerer, C.F: 2003, “Cultural Conflict and Merger Failure: An Experimental Approach”, Management Science, 49 (4), 400-415.

[reference-43] Wooldridge, A: 2009 (Mar. 14), “Global Heroes: A Special Report on Entrepreneurship”, The Economist, 390 (8622), 1-20.