The Origin of Morality and the Making of the Moral Predicament

Gennady Shkliarevsky

doi:10.70150/khvbn767

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Research ArticleEthics · social science · institutions

The Origin of Morality and the Making of the Moral Predicament

Gennady Shkliarevsky

Ethical Review of Social SciencesVolume 1, issue 2Pages 7–1831 December 2025https://doi.org/10.70150/khvbn767

Research summary

Abstract

Moral dimension is a characteristic feature of most transformative developments that have occurred in the course of human history. Moral outrage has fuelled numerous upheavals, uprisings, and revolutions. Researchers have recognized the important role of moral outrage during periods of social and political change. However, they usually tend to explain it by social, political, or economic factors. They rarely trace this phenomenon to purely moral factors. This article argues that the primary source of moral outrage lies in the moral sphere – specifically, in the discrepancy between the widely recognized moral principles and the actual practice. The imperative of equality is arguably the most important and fundamental principle that underpins the existence of morality. The appeal of the imperative of equality transcends temporal and cultural boundaries. Yet despite this broad appeal, our social practice accepts, tolerates, and perpetuates inequality. This article calls this discrepancy the moral predicament. The article will analyse the factors that are involved in the making of the moral predicament. It will identify the source of the imperative of equality and will explain why this imperative has not been realized in practice. The article will also consider several relevant issues, such as the rise of consciousness and morality. Finally, the article will offer a perspective on how the problem of the moral predicament can be solved.

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Licence: CC BY 4.0

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Keywords and JEL classification

Moral PredicamentMoralityThe Process of CreationConsciousnessThe Imperative of EqualityJEL A13JEL H890JEL I310JEL I390JEL Z18

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Boden, M. A. (2004). The creative mind: Myths and mechanisms (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Bok, S. (2019). What makes us better: Two books explore whether morality is innate or learned. The American Scholar, 88(3), 120–121.
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Burkart, J. M., Brügger, R. K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2018). Evolutionary origins of morality: Insights from non-human primates. Frontiers in Sociology, 3, Article 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2018.00017
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Heathwood, C. (2012). Could morality have a source? Journal of Ethics & Social Philosophy, 6(2), 1–19.
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Piaget, J. (1998). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.
Rowlands, M. (2012). Can animals be moral?. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199842001.001.0001
Sanchez, P. (2017). The origins of morality. Dialogue & Nexus, 4(1), Article 6. https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/dialogue/vol4/iss1/6/
Shkliarevsky, G. (2019). Conservation, creation, and evolution: Revising the Darwinian project. Journal of Evolutionary Science, 1(2), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14302/issn.2689-4602.jes-19-2990
Shkliarevsky, G. (2020, January 28). The evolution of civilization as a process of creation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3526961
Shkliarevsky, G. (2021, June 8). In quest for justice: Solving the problem of inclusion and equality. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3862630
Shkliarevsky, G. (2007). The paradox of observing, autopoiesis, and the future of social sciences. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 24(3), 323–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.811
Shkliarevsky, G. (2017). Understanding the process of creation: A new approach. Management: Journal of Sustainable Business and Management Solutions in Emerging Economies, 22(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.7595/management.fon.2017.0021
Shkliarevsky, G. (2017). The civilization at a crossroads: Constructing the new paradigm. Glasstree Publishing.
Simonton, D. K. (1999). Creativity as blind variation and selective retention: Is the creative process Darwinian? Psychological Inquiry, 10(4), 309–328.
Smith, E. E. (2015, December 2). Is human morality a product of evolution? The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/12/evolution-of-morality-social-humans-and-apes/418371/
Tomasello, M. (2018, September 1). The origins of human morality. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origins-of-human-morality/
Tomasello, M. (2016). A natural history of human morality. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674915855
Wilson, C. (2010). Darwinian morality. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 3(2), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-009-0162-z
Wilson, E. O. (1998, April 1). The biological basis of morality. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/04/the-biological-basis-of-morality/377087/
Zaki, J. (2019). The war for kindness: Building empathy in a fractured world. Crown.

Author information

Gennady Shkliarevsky Corresponding author

Bard College

shkliare@bard.edu

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[reference-1] Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Prentice-Hall.

[reference-2] Boden, M. A. (2004). The creative mind: Myths and mechanisms (2nd ed.). Routledge.

[reference-3] Bok, S. (2019). What makes us better: Two books explore whether morality is innate or learned. The American Scholar, 88(3), 120–121.

[reference-4] Buchanan, A., & Powell, R. (2016). Toward a naturalistic theory of moral progress. Ethics, 126(4), 983–1014.

[reference-5] Burkart, J. M., Brügger, R. K., & van Schaik, C. P. (2018). Evolutionary origins of morality: Insights from non-human primates. Frontiers in Sociology, 3, Article 17. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2018.00017

[reference-6] Churchland, P. S. (2019). Conscience: The origin of moral intuition. W. W. Norton & Company.

[reference-7] Craig, W. L., & Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2004). God?: A debate between a Christian and an atheist. Oxford University Press.

[reference-8] Darwin, C. (1882). The descent of man (2nd ed.). John Murray.

[reference-9] Dawkins, R. (1990). The selfish gene. Oxford University Press.

[reference-10] Decety, J., & Cowell, J. M. (2016, March 9). Our brains are wired for morality: Evolution, development, and neuroscience. Frontiers for Young Minds. https://doi.org/10.3389/frym.2016.00003

[reference-11] Fitzpatrick, S. (2017). Animal morality: What is the debate about? Biology & Philosophy, 32(6), 1151–1183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-017-9599-6

[reference-12] Gabora, L. (2019). Creativity: Linchpin in the quest for a viable theory of cultural evolution. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 27, 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.09.013

[reference-13] Heathwood, C. (2012). Could morality have a source? Journal of Ethics & Social Philosophy, 6(2), 1–19.

[reference-14] Hemming, J. (1996). Morality after myth. Journal of Moral Education, 25(1), 1–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305724960250104

[reference-15] Hinde, R. A. (2002). Why good is good: The sources of morality. Routledge.

[reference-16] Hodgson, G. M. (2013). The enduring relevance of Darwin’s theory of morality. BioScience, 63(7), 513–514. https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2013.63.7.2

[reference-17] Hume, D. (1989). A treatise of human nature. Penguin Books.

[reference-18] Hume, D. (1983). An enquiry concerning the principles of morals (J. B. Schneewind, Ed.). Hackett Publishing Company.

[reference-19] Johnstone, A. A. (2018). Why morality? The Humanistic Psychologist, 46(2), 188–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000090

[reference-20] Joyce, R. (2014). The origins of moral judgment. In F. B. M. de Waal, P. S. Churchland, T. Pievani, & S. Parmigiani (Eds.), Evolved morality: The biology and philosophy of human conscience (pp. 125–142). Brill.

[reference-21] Killen, M., Hitti, A., Cooley, S., & Elenbaas, L. (2015). Morality, development, and culture. In M. J. Gelfand, C.-Y. Chiu, & Y.-Y. Hong (Eds.), Handbook of advances in culture and psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 161–220). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190218966.003.0004

[reference-22] Krebs, D. L. (2005). The evolution of morality. In D. M. Buss (Ed.), The handbook of evolutionary psychology (pp. 747–771). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470939376.ch26

[reference-23] Linquist, S. (Ed.). (2016). The evolution of culture. Routledge.

[reference-24] Locke, J. (1997). An essay concerning human understanding. Penguin Books.

[reference-25] Mikhalevich, I., & Powell, R. (2020). Minds without spines: Evolutionarily inclusive animal ethics. Animal Sentience, 5(29), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.51291/2377-7478.1527

[reference-26] Morris, I. (2015, April 18). The unexpected origin of human values. New Scientist, 226(3017), 1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0262-4079(15)30170-6

[reference-27] Pettit, P. (2018). Naturalizing Tomasello’s history of morality. Philosophical Psychology, 31(5), 722–735. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2018.1486609

[reference-28] Piaget, J. (1998). The origins of intelligence in children. International Universities Press.

[reference-29] Rowlands, M. (2012). Can animals be moral?. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199842001.001.0001

[reference-30] Sanchez, P. (2017). The origins of morality. Dialogue & Nexus, 4(1), Article 6. https://digitalcommons.acu.edu/dialogue/vol4/iss1/6/

[reference-31] Shkliarevsky, G. (2019). Conservation, creation, and evolution: Revising the Darwinian project. Journal of Evolutionary Science, 1(2), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.14302/issn.2689-4602.jes-19-2990

[reference-32] Shkliarevsky, G. (2020, January 28). The evolution of civilization as a process of creation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3526961

[reference-33] Shkliarevsky, G. (2021, June 8). In quest for justice: Solving the problem of inclusion and equality. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3862630

[reference-34] Shkliarevsky, G. (2007). The paradox of observing, autopoiesis, and the future of social sciences. Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 24(3), 323–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/sres.811

[reference-35] Shkliarevsky, G. (2017). Understanding the process of creation: A new approach. Management: Journal of Sustainable Business and Management Solutions in Emerging Economies, 22(3), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.7595/management.fon.2017.0021

[reference-36] Shkliarevsky, G. (2017). The civilization at a crossroads: Constructing the new paradigm. Glasstree Publishing.

[reference-37] Simonton, D. K. (1999). Creativity as blind variation and selective retention: Is the creative process Darwinian? Psychological Inquiry, 10(4), 309–328.

[reference-38] Smith, E. E. (2015, December 2). Is human morality a product of evolution? The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/12/evolution-of-morality-social-humans-and-apes/418371/

[reference-39] Tomasello, M. (2018, September 1). The origins of human morality. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-origins-of-human-morality/

[reference-40] Tomasello, M. (2016). A natural history of human morality. Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674915855

[reference-41] Wilson, C. (2010). Darwinian morality. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 3(2), 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-009-0162-z

[reference-42] Wilson, E. O. (1998, April 1). The biological basis of morality. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1998/04/the-biological-basis-of-morality/377087/

[reference-43] Zaki, J. (2019). The war for kindness: Building empathy in a fractured world. Crown.